Physics of Computer Chips - ComputerphileYouTube↗  IA↗(long shot)
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we see a lot of sort figures numbers or
We see a lot of sort of figures and numbers
kind of have small things are getting in
for kind of how small things are getting
computing right and I thought who better
in computing, right?
to talk to than sixty symbols is own
And I thought who better to come and talk to than Phil Moriarty, would you call yourself a nano-scientist?
would you quit up a nano scientist oh I
h
guess I would it depends on which funding agency I'm applying to funding for but yeah nanoscientist is a good one here yeah it's great to be back in
Oh I guess I would it depends on which funding agency I'm applying to funding for, but yeah nano-scientist is a good one *laughs* Yeah it's great to be back on Computerphile it's been a long time I don't know a couple of years or something like that?
computer file it's been a long time I don't know a couple of years something
like that um so yeah we do within the group here we manipulate individual
Um.. So yeah we do, within the group here we manipulate individual atoms that's what we do
items that's that's what we do so we work at the level of not just single atoms and single molecules but actually looking inside single molecules the
so we work at the level of not just single atoms and single molecules but actually looking inside single molecules
state of the art is no longer at least in the research and development community not in the commercial community but in the industrial
The state of the art is no longer, at least in the research and development community not in the commercial or industrial community
community but in the search and development particularly universities
but in the research and development, particularly in the universities,
state of the art isn't see in atoms we've been able to do that for years in fact we could see atoms or as long ago
State of the art isn't seeing atoms we've been able to do that for years. In fact, we could see atoms as long ago as 1955.
as 1955 with something called the field
Um, with something called the field ion microscope.
iron microscope beginning of eighties
At the beginning of the 80s however,
however at all Chin's because it was an instrument called the scanning tunneling microscope developed which is basically
it all changed because there was in instrument called the scanning tunneling microscope developed,
a sharp probe you bring it in close to a surface you move it back and forth and
Which is basically a sharp probe, you bring it in close to a surface, you move it back and forth
you measure a force or an interaction
and you measure a force or an interaction
and the important thing is we can make this probe atomically sharp then your resolutions is up a single item level so
and the important thing is if you can make this probe atomically sharp, then your resolution is at the single atom level.
we can see atoms we can move them but as I say the state of the art is actually
So we can see atoms we can move them, but as I said the state of the art is actually single bonds
single bonds looking at single electron orbitals single chemical bonds and manipulating those commercially that
looking at single electron orbitals, single chemical bonds, and manipulating those.
technology doesn't exist and it's going to be quite a while before we get down to devices which are truly mass-produced
Commercially, that technology doesn't exist and its gonna be quite a while before we get down to devices which are truly mass produced at the single atom level.
at the single item level but if you look at the you know from the 70s I think we're at the sort of 10 micrometer
But if you look at the, you know, from the 70s I think we were at the sort of 10 micrometer level,
levels so 10 micrometer micrometer is a thousandth of a millimeter millionth of
so 10 micrometers, a micrometer is a thousandth of a millimeter, a millionth of a meter.
a meter we're now at the 14 nanometer level but so the really off hand where and to try and get some vague handle on
We are now at the 14 nano-meter level, so the really offhand way to try and get some vague handle on it,
it is for many of you out there perhaps not for me but for many of you out there your hair will grow roughly about a
is, for many of you out there perhaps not for me but for many of you out there- your hair will grow roughly about a nano-meter a second,
nanometer a second particularly if you knew you know teens twenties your hair
Particularly if you're in your, you know, teens, 20s
is grown at about that rate of about a
Your hair's growing out at about that rate of about a nano-meter a second.
nanometer a second in the context of single atoms the diameter of an atom is about a few tenths of a nanometer when we're
In the context of single atoms, the diameter of an atom is about a few tenths of a nano-meter
working at 14 nanometers and the feature sizes on semiconductor chips are around
When we're working at 14 nano-meters and the feature sizes on semiconductor chips are around about 14 nano-meters
about 40 nanometers we're talking you know tens of atoms we're talking of the order of 50 60 atoms wide the features
We're talking, you know, tens of atoms, we're talking about about 50-60 atoms wide, the features
so it's a is really quite remarkable you
So it's um, it's really quite remarkable you know?
know we went from thousandth of a millimeter down to 50 atoms in the course of you know for 50 years
We went from a thousandth of a millimeter down to 50 atoms in the course of, you know, 50 years or something like that
something like that so you mentioned the features is that things like the individual wires that go
So you mentioned the features, is that things like the individual wires that go to make a transistor?
to make it right yes yeah exactly that's exactly sort it's the feature size really is to do with the the all the
Yeah, exactly, that's exactly, so it's the feature size really is to do with the
different elements on the chip in terms largely the transistors and the wiring and the different types of component you
all the different elements on the chip in terms, largely the transistors and the wiring and the different types of components you have in the chip
have on the chip that have been just scaled all the way down to that level at
that have been just scaled all the way down to that level.
the moment and the way it works in the way it's worked for decades is that you control the where the electrons are you
At the moment, the way it works and the way it worked for decades is that you control where the electrons are, you control the electron's charge
control the electron charge and electrons will respond to electric fields so if you've got a battery and or you've got two two metal plates and you
and electrons will respond to electric fields so if you've got a battery, and you've got two metal plates and you put a battery across them
put a battery across them what you have between those plates is what's called an
What you have between those plates is whats called an electric field
electric field you put an electron in there then that electron will respond to
if you put an electron in there, then that electron will respond to the electric field
the electric field a great deal of the electronics around us is based on silicon there are other compounds things like called gallium arsenide for example
A great deal of the electronics around us is based on silicon, there are other compounds, like Gallium arsenide for example
but a great deal of the the micro and nano electronics industry is based on
But a great deal of the micro and the nano electronics industry is based on silicon.
silicon so there's a silicon work a bit like the plastic that you maybe or the PCB if I say green PCB that's plastic with wires on does this oh that's also
S: So does the silicon work a bit like the plastic, or maybe the PCB, if I said the green PCB, that's plastic with wires on it-
that's a really good question no the silicon is much more active than that much more active it's not like you put
That's a really good question, no the silicon's much more active than that, much more active, it's not like you pattern these features in the silicon
on these features on the silicon is just a passive substrate you're actually using the silicon and the electrons in the silicon and you're controlling where
as just a passive substrate, you're actually using the silicon and the electrons in the silicon and you're controlling where the electrons in the silicon go
the electrons in the silicon go and you
can take the raw silicon and you can dope it you can add impurities
and you can take the raw silicon and you can dope it, you can add impurities deliberately
deliberately to add to introduce more electrons or indeed actually to take
to add, to introduce more electrons, or indeed, actually, to take electrons out.
electrons out so we've got electrons and holes and that means you can contain jerem attica lee how when you put a battery on this thing or when you put a
So we got electrons and holes. And that means you can change dramatically how when you put a battery on this thing, or when you put a power source on it
power source on it how those electrons flow and then by in there in turn patterning little metal features on top of that you
how those electrons flow, and then by, in turn, patterning little metal features on top of that, you can apply electric fields and you can control where the electrons go.
apply electric fields and you can control where the electrons go well you
generally switch ON or switch off the flow of the electrons you trap the
You generally switch on or switch off the flow of the electrons, you trap the electrons in a region of space.
electrons in a region of space now the problem is with this technology is that it's starting to run out of steam it's
Now, the problem with this technology is that it's starting to run out of steam.
been running out of steam for quite some
It's been running out of steam for quite some time.
time and there's been lots of near seeing going on since the early eighties
And there's been lot's of nay-saying going on since the early 80s
saying that is going to stop and it's
Saying it's going to stop -it's going to fail
going to fail in snowing and the the
and the semiconductor industry
semiconductor industry is extremely clever and comes up with new ideas time
is extremely clever and comes up with new ideas time and time again.
and time again but you can't beat
But, you can't beat physics
physics we are going to come very soon particularly you were now at tens of
and were going to come very soon -we're now at tens of atoms
atoms when we get down to features which are just a few atoms or say 10 atoms
when we get down to features that are just a few atoms, or say ten atoms across
across then we've got to take into account that once you get down to that a
then, we've got to take into account that
level it's quantum which means that you can no longer just think of the electron
once you get down to that level it's quantum, which means that you can no longer just think of the electron as a little hard
as a little hard billiard board which is
billiard ball, which is the picture that all of us have in our heads
the picture all of us have in our heads it's actually got a wave-like character
it's actually got a wave-like character
which is not to say it would be easy if it were just that the electrons spread
which is not to say it would be easy if it were just that the electrons spread out in space
out in space that's not what happens it
that's not what happens
means that it under certain circumstances it behaves as if it were a
it means that under certain circumstances it behaves
wave and if you find out confusing good
as if it were a wave and if you find that confusing
because so many of us find it confusing
good, because so many of us find it confusing.
this is this is this is raw quantum
This is raw quantum physics
physics this is as a physicist it's not
As a physicist, it's not that you understand it.
that you understand it you just get used
You just get used to it.
to it so but once you get down to this
Once you get down to this level
level though you get this wave-like
you get this wave-like characteristic
characteristic and then just like waves
and just like waves will spread out
waves will spread out so you might want to trap the electron in this region of
so you might want to trap the electron in this region of space
space but it's starting now due to this really small size - we're at
but it's starting now -due to this really small size-
the point where we've got to take out wave like nature into consideration and
at the point where we've got to take that wave-like nature into consideration
the electron can spread out we call that
and the electron could spread out.
tunneling and that means you want to
We call that tunneling.
trap it in space but in fact you just
And that means you want to trap it in space, but in fact
can't it's so slippery it's tunneling
you just can't. It's so slippery, it's tunneling away.
away so I'm going to throw a really stupid question so I'm full of them
So I'm gonna find a really stupid question cause I am full of them today
today and I've heard that quantum computing is a good thing so I mean I
I've heard that quantum computing is a good thing, so I mean...
sort of sort know so there's a
Oh, So, oh, so, no, So there's a different, yeah right, *bleargh*
difference yeah right so there's a quantum computing which is where you absolutely exploit that so there is classical computing which what we have
So there's quantum computing which is where you absolutely exploit that. So there is classical computing which is what we have now.
now and then we have quantum computing now those are two very very different
And than we have quantum computing. Now those are two very, very different paradigms.
paradigms so instead this is quantum
So instead this is quantum effects on classic computing
effects on classical computers perfect yes quantum effects on classical computing instead of just
Perfect! Yes. Quantum effects on classical computing instead of just being pure quantum,
being pure quantum the sort of mindset in the industry and the mindset in some
The sort of mindset in the industry and the mindset in some areas of academia is
areas of academia is how do we work around these effects I think we're going to have to start particularly at the end
How do we work around these effects? I think we are gonna have to start, particularly when we get down to these really small sizes
of this really small sizes we're going to have to stop seeing them as something that's you know to the detriment of the device and Exploited instead I'm going
We are gonna have to stop seeing them as something that's a, erm, you know to the detriment of device and exploit it instead
to have to think about well we can do amazing things when we start thinking of
Well we can do amazing things when we start thinking of that wave-like character
that wave-like character and the move to what more a more towards a much more sort of quantum mindset where instead of
And the move towards a much more quantum mindset
trying to work around these things we
Where instead of trying to work around these things, we exploit them
exploit them so we work with silicon a
So we work with silicon a great deal in the lab
great deal in the lab it's quite shiny
It's quite shiny...
it is very very shiny so it's polished
It is very very shiny. So, it's polished on that side.
on that side so when we do our
So, when we do our experiments to manipulate atoms
experiments to manipulate atoms we take a chunk of this a little bit less than a centimeter square something like that we
we take a chunk of this, a little bit less than a centimeter squared, something like that
put it in an ultra-high vacuum and we heat it up to about 1,200 degrees C and
we put it in a ultrahigh vacuum and we heat it up to about 1200C
that drives off the oxide that is on the
and that drives off the oxide that is on the surface
surface and just after it cools down we
and just after it cools down, we can see atoms.
can see atoms so they're really it's actually quite straightforward these days to see individual atoms and silicon
So it's actually straight forward to see individual atoms on Silicon surfaces.
surfaces that's not how the semiconductor industry works because to see individual atoms particularly the
That's not how the semiconductor industry works because to see individual atoms, particularly the way we do it
way we do it and the way many other
and the way many other groups in the world do it
groups in the world do it it takes many hours to get to get good images to form
it takes many hours to get good images
the components and to pattern the wafer you use something called
To form the components and pattern the wafer, you use something called photolithography
photolithography or in something called
or something called electron beam lithography
electron beam lithography and photo lithography has been the standard throughout the industry for very very
and photolithography has been the standard throughout the industry for very verry many years
many years but it's again running out of
but it is, again, running out of steam.
steam so you checked away for you coated with a thin film of polymer or plastic
So you take the wafer, you coat it with a thin film of polymer or plastic
and then you put a what's called a mask
and then you put what is called a mask in front of it
in front of it or stencil basically and then you shine light through that
or stencil basically. And then you shine light through that stencil
stencil and you expose the plastic at the surface in particular regions according to the pattern and the
and then you expose the plastic at the surface in particular regions according to the pattern
important thing is when this particular polymer is exposed to light it becomes
and the important this is when this particular polymer is exposed to light, it becomes soluable
soluble if the regions that aren't exposed aren't soluble so then you can
The regions that aren't exposed aren't soluable so then you can put it in an etch
put it in an etch and you can remove those those regions where it's been soluble and leave those regions where its own soluble that's the fundamental
and you can remove those regions where it's soluble and leave those regions where it's unsoluable
process that's the fundamental process
That's the fundamental process, that's the fundamental process in a nutshell
in a nutshell and they do different
And do they do different layers of this as well?
layers of this as well so it's extremely clever because you're limited by the natural wavelength of light so light has a
So, it's extremely clever because you're limited by the natural wavelength of light
wavelength and therefore that wavelength ultimately determines the feature size
light has a wavelength and therefore that wavelength ultimately determines the feature size
and with the current processing which is about 40 nanometers they do something
and with the current processing which is about 14 nano-meters, they do something really really clever which is
really really clever which is they use one mask exposed and then they put another mask and they just offset it a
they use one mask, expose, and then they put another mask and just offset it a little bit
little bit which is really clever and
which is really clever
given that this is 40 nanometers when I say a little bit that's a teensy tiny
and given this is 14nano-meters, when I say little bit, that's a tincy tiny bit
tiny bit and that actually getting those in registry is is quite tricky so that's
and actually getting those in registry is quite tricky
that's where the industry is at the
So, that's where the industry is at the moment
moment to go beyond that really to get down to these features which are ten atoms of a few atoms across then you
To go beyond that, really to get down to these features which are 10 atoms or a few atoms across
have to start thinking about lots of other issues and lots of other
then you have to start thinking about lots of other issues and lots of other approaches
approaches one way of doing that is to move to a much shorter wavelength and
One way of doing that is to move to a much shorter wavelength
what shorter wavelength means much
a much shorter wavelength means much higher energy
higher energy and we have something called extreme ultraviolet so that's far
and we have something called Extreme Ultraviolet so that's far off the end of the Ultraviolet range
off the end of the ultraviolet range and you can get down to the standard their aiming for is 13.5 nanometers light wavelength light and they that's quite
And you can get down to -or the standard they're aiming for is 13.5nm wavelength light and that's quite high in energy. It's really high in energy
equating high in energy is really high in energy and that will enable you to
get the feature size much much smaller
and that will enable you to get the feature size much much smaller
you can really push the resolution you can really push the feature size down by
You can really push the resolution, you can really push the feature size down by using
using instead of photons of light using
instead of photons of light, using electrons
electrons and you can squeeze the wavelength of electrons down much much
and you can squeeze the wavelength of electrons down much much smaller
smaller the problem with that is is it's a serial eight you just you have your
the problem with that is it's a serial -with light you have your sample,
sample you have your wafer and then you
you have your wafer and you just bathe it in light
just bear that in light with electrons
with electrons, it's a raster beam
it's a raster beam which means it's a instead of a parallel process it's a
which means it is, instead of a parallel process, it's a serial process
serial process which means it's
which means it's incredibly slow
incredibly slow so electron being gives you much better definition a much better
So electron beam gives you much better definition and much better resolution
resolution but it just for the semiconductor industry it's a real pain because it's so unbelievably slow so the the for us when we manipulate atoms it's
but for the semiconductor industry, it's a real pain because it's so unbelievably slow So... And for us, when we manipulate atoms
exactly the same process we use a single
it's exactly the same process
probe we bring it in close to a surface
we use a single probe, we bring it in close to a surface so we can see atoms
we can see atoms and we can manipulate those atoms or move them and bullets it's excruciatingly ly slow because it's
and we can manipulate those atoms and move them around, but it's excruciatingly slow because it's a serial process
a serial process this is the crystal structure of silicon just assume that all the atoms are the same color
This is the crystal structure of silicon. Just assume all the atoms are the same color
each sphere each board represents a single silicon atom and the silicon
but each sphere here, each ball, represents a single silicon atom
crystallizes in a form where you've got
and the silicon crystallizes in a form where you have these tetrahedrons
these tetrahedron so if we take one silicon atom here it's purple one it's connected to one two three four and
so if you take one silicon atom here, this purple one. It is connected to 1, 2, 3, 4.
that's because in chemical terms silicon
and that's because in chemical terms, silicon has four valence electrons
has four valence electrons it wants to form four valence bonds there are so
It wants to form four valance bonds
many we have these really silly at times and frustrating this is chemistry and this is physics when it's all part of
We have these, really silly at times, frustrating; this is chemistry, this is physics. It's all part of one integrated hole
one integrated whole even computer science is part of that integrated whole sometimes
even computer science is part of that integrated hole, sometimes.
so but that's sort of off the point of
...but that's sort of off the point of what we were discussing
what we were discussing it's fun but just to show you in action that
It's fun, but just to show you in action that um...
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